自然美学 environmental (Allen Carlson)

首次发表于 2007 年 1 月 29 日;实质性修订于 2019 年 4 月 9 日

自然美学是哲学美学的一个相对较新的子领域。它在 20 世纪的最后三分之一内兴起于分析美学中。在它出现之前,分析传统中的美学主要关注艺术哲学。自然美学起源于对这种强调的反应,而转而追求对自然环境的审美欣赏的研究。自其早期阶段以来,自然美学的范围已经扩大,不仅包括自然环境,还包括人类和人类影响的环境。与此同时,该学科还包括对这些环境内的事物的研究,从而产生了所谓的日常生活美学。这个领域涉及的不仅仅是更常见的物体和环境的美学,还包括一系列日常活动。因此,在 21 世纪初,自然美学涵盖了除艺术以外几乎所有事物的审美意义的研究。随着自然美学范围的扩大,21 世纪还出现了对自然美学与环境主义之间关系的重新和更深入的研究,以及几个新的兴趣和方向。


1. 历史

尽管自然美学作为西方哲学美学的一个子领域仅在过去四十年中发展起来,但它在 18 世纪和 19 世纪的欧洲和北美美学中具有历史根源。在这些世纪中,自然美学取得了重要进展,包括无私概念的出现,以及崇高和风景的概念,以及积极美学观念的引入。这些概念在当代自然美学的研究中仍然发挥着作用,特别是在与环境主义的关系上。(另见下面的第 5.1 节。)

1.1 十八世纪的自然美学

在西方,自然美学的首要哲学发展发生在 18 世纪。在那个世纪里,现代美学的奠基人不仅将自然视为审美体验的典范对象,还发展了无私作为这种体验的标志的概念。在整个世纪的过程中,各种思想家对这一概念进行了阐述,他们运用它来净化审美欣赏中越来越广泛的利益和关联。根据一个标准的解释(Stolnitz 1961),这一概念起源于第三代沙夫茨伯里伯爵,他引入它作为表征审美概念的方式,由弗朗西斯·哈奇森进一步发展,以排除审美体验中不仅仅是个人和功利利益,还有更一般性质的关联,而阿奇博尔德·艾里森进一步发展它以指代一种特定的心态。这一概念在康德的《判断力批判》中得到了经典的阐述,其中自然被视为审美体验的典范对象。康德认为自然之美优于艺术之美,并且它补充了最佳的心态习惯。无私概念的发展和将自然接受为理想的审美欣赏对象的接受是相辅相成的。通过无私概念来阐明审美概念,将对自然的审美欣赏与欣赏者个人的宗教、经济或功利利益分离开来,这些利益可能会妨碍审美体验。

无私理论还为从三个不同的概念化角度理解自然的审美维度提供了基础。第一个涉及美的概念,这个概念很容易适用于被驯化和培育的花园和景观。第二个集中在崇高的概念上。在崇高的体验中,自然的更具威胁和可怕的表现,如山脉和荒野,当以无私的态度来看待时,可以被审美地欣赏,而不仅仅是恐惧或鄙视。这两个概念在埃德蒙·伯克和康德的著作中得到了重要的阐述。然而,关于对自然的欣赏,第三个概念比美和崇高更为重要:风景的概念。因此,到 18 世纪末,有三个明显不同的概念,每个概念都关注自然多样而常常对比鲜明的情绪的不同方面。风景传统的一位历史学家(康伦 2000)认为,在“18 世纪英国理论中,审美类别之间的界限相对清晰和稳定”。这些差异可以总结如下:被认为美的物体往往是小而光滑的,但细微变化,精致,颜色“美丽”,而被认为崇高的物体则强大,广阔,强烈,可怕,且“无法定义”。风景物品通常处于被认为崇高或美丽的物品之间,它们复杂而古怪,多样而不规则,丰富而有力量,并充满活力。

这三个概念中,风景如画的概念在审美体验自然界方面获得了最大的重视,而不是美丽或崇高的概念。它不仅占据了复杂、不规则、有力和充满活力的广阔中间地带,这些特点在自然界中随处可见,而且加强了审美欣赏自然界和艺术中对自然界的处理之间的各种长期联系。"风景如画" 一词字面意思是 "像画一样",风景如画的理论主张审美欣赏,其中自然界被体验为被分割成艺术般的场景,这些场景理想情况下既在主题上又在构图上都类似于艺术作品,尤其是风景画。因此,由于客观性的概念要求欣赏自然界时剥离欣赏者自身的个人利益和联想,它有助于为由风景如画的理论主导的自然界体验清理道路,通过这种理论,鼓励欣赏者从新的艺术形象和联想的角度看待自然界。这种风景如画的概念与早期关于自然界由所谓的 "自然之作" 组成的概念相关,尽管这些作品本身被认为是审美体验的适当和重要对象,但当它们类似于艺术作品时,它们被认为更具吸引力。这个概念也与其他艺术传统相呼应,比如将艺术视为自然的镜子。风景如画的理论在 18 世纪晚期得到了最充分的阐述,当时它在威廉·吉尔平、尤维代尔·普赖斯和理查德·佩恩·奈特的著作中广为流传。那时,它为英国游客提供了审美理想,他们在湖区、苏格兰高地和阿尔卑斯山追求风景如画的风景。

1.2 十九世纪的自然美学

在 18 世纪的阐述之后,风景如画的概念仍然对整个 19 世纪以及 20 世纪初的大众审美体验产生了主导影响。事实上,它仍然是与普通旅游相关的审美体验的重要组成部分,这种体验涉及到在旅行手册、日历照片和明信片中所呈现的自然世界的观看和欣赏。然而,尽管风景如画的概念继续指导着大众对自然的审美欣赏,但在 18 世纪的哲学研究中,自然美学在后来逐渐衰落。许多主要主题,如崇高的概念、无私的观念以及自然在哲学美学中的理论中心地位,都在康德那里达到了顶峰,他对这些思想进行了详尽的研究,似乎实现了一种哲学上的封闭。在康德之后,黑格尔开启了一个新的世界秩序。在黑格尔的哲学中,艺术是“绝对精神”的最高表达,它而不是自然注定成为哲学美学的首选主题。因此,在 19 世纪,无论是在欧洲大陆还是在英国,相对较少的哲学家和仅有零星的浪漫主义思想家认真追求自然美学的理论研究。没有与前一个世纪相媲美的哲学著作。

然而,尽管欧洲的自然美学哲学研究陷入停滞,但在北美却正在发展一种新的对自然世界审美欣赏的理解方式。这种对自然的欣赏观念源于美国的自然写作传统,如亨利·大卫·梭罗的散文所体现的那样。它还受到了风景如画的概念的启发,尤其是在艺术表现形式上,如托马斯·科尔和弗雷德里克·丘奇的绘画作品。然而,随着自然写作成为更主导的表达形式,这种观念越来越多地受到自然科学发展的影响。在 19 世纪中叶,它受到了乔治·珀金斯·马什(Marsh 1865)的地理学研究的影响,他认为人类越来越多地破坏了自然之美。这个想法在 19 世纪末由美国博物学家约翰·缪尔的著作中得到了有力的呈现,他深入研究自然历史。缪尔明确区分了这种对自然审美欣赏的理解方式与以风景如画为指导的理念所驱使的方式。在一篇著名的散文《高塞拉近景》(Muir 1894)中,缪尔的两位艺术家伙伴专注于山景,展示了以风景如画为指导的自然审美体验。这与缪尔自己的审美体验不同,他对山地环境的兴趣和欣赏更类似于地质学家的方式。这种对自然的体验方式最终使缪尔认识到整个自然环境,尤其是野生自然的美感,并将丑陋主要归因于人类对自然的干扰。 他认为具有审美价值的事物范围似乎包括整个自然界,从他那个时代被认为丑陋的生物,如蛇和鳄鱼,到被认为破坏环境的自然灾害,如洪水和地震。缪尔所实践的自然欣赏方式已经与当代被称为“积极美学”(卡尔森 1984)的观点联系在一起。在这种欣赏中,人类对自然环境的痕迹被避开,它在某种程度上与受到风景如画观念影响的审美欣赏相反,后者在人类存在的证据中找到了兴趣和愉悦。

2. 二十世纪的发展

西方哲学对自然界美学的研究在二十世纪中叶达到了低谷,分析美学的重点几乎完全集中在艺术哲学上。与此同时,一些思想家辩护认为对自然的审美欣赏是依附于艺术的,甚至认为它实际上并不是审美欣赏。然而,在世纪的最后三分之一,对美学学科对自然界的忽视引起了反应,引发了对自然审美的复兴,并导致了自然美学的出现。

2.1 忽视自然美学

在二十世纪上半叶,英美哲学在很大程度上忽视了自然美学。然而,也有一些值得注意的例外。例如,在北美,乔治·桑塔亚那研究了自然美学以及自然本身的概念。稍后,约翰·杜威为对自然和日常生活的审美体验做出了贡献,柯特·杜卡斯讨论了自然之美以及人体之美。在英国,R.G.科林伍德致力于艺术哲学和自然观念的研究,但这两个主题在他的思想中并没有重要地结合在一起。然而,除了少数几个人之外,就审美学而言,对自然美学的认真考虑很少。相反,这门学科被对艺术的兴趣所主导。到了二十世纪中叶,在当时英语世界中主导地位的分析哲学内,哲学美学几乎等同于艺术哲学。那个时期的主要美学教材副标题为《批评哲学中的问题》,并以这样的断言开篇:“如果没有人谈论艺术作品,那么在我所提出的研究领域中,就不会有美学问题”(比尔兹利,1958 年)。这个评论旨在强调语言分析的重要性,但也揭示了当时以艺术为主导的美学理解。此外,如果讨论自然的审美欣赏,与艺术相比,它被视为一个混乱、主观的业务,缺乏哲学上的兴趣。二十世纪下半叶的一些重要美学家认为,超越所谓的“艺术世界”的审美判断必须相对于观察条件,并且不受规范艺术欣赏的限制(沃尔顿,1970 年;迪基,1974 年)。

分析美学对艺术的主导产生了两个影响。一方面,它促使了一种有争议的哲学立场,否定了对自然的任何审美体验的可能性。这个立场认为,审美欣赏必然涉及审美判断,这意味着将欣赏对象视为设计智力的成就。然而,由于自然不是设计智力的产物,因此它的欣赏并非审美的(Mannison 1980)。过去,自然欣赏被认为是审美的,是因为假设自然是一个设计者的作品,但这个假设是错误的,或者至少不足以为任何自然美学提供基础。另一方面,以艺术为主导的美学解读也支持了各种历史传统中将自然界概念化为本质上类似艺术的方法,例如将其视为“自然之作”或“创造者的手工作品”或风景如画的景色。例如,可以称之为自然欣赏的景观模型直接源自风景画的传统,提出我们应该像欣赏风景画一样审美地体验自然。这要求我们在某种程度上将其视为一系列二维场景,并专注于与风景画的浪漫形象相关的艺术特质,或者仅仅关注其形式美学特质。这些以艺术为导向的自然审美模型,除了得到强大而悠久的思想传统的支持(Biese 1905,Nicolson 1959),还在一些最近的自然美学研究中得到重新考虑(Stecker 1997,Crawford 2004,Leddy 2005a,Tafalla 2010,Paden 2015b)。 同样,对自然形式主义审美欣赏的辩护最近得到了更新(Zangwill 2001 2013,Welchman 2018),以及相关的讨论和辩论(Parsons 2004,Parsons and Carlson 2004,Moore 2006)。

2.2 自然美学的出现

在二十世纪的最后三分之一,对自然美学的兴趣重新出现。这一复兴是由几个不同因素造成的。部分原因是对环境的明显退化引起了公众关注,包括审美方面。这也是学术界意识到环境运动的重要性,无论是在理论讨论还是实际行动层面上。值得注意的是,环境伦理学的哲学研究也起源于这个时期。早期的自然美学研究主要集中在对公众对环境审美状况的担忧进行的实证研究上。对这些研究的批评者认为,环境管理中使用的景观评估和规划技术不足以强调主要是形式属性,而忽视了表达和其他类型的审美品质(Sagoff 1974,Carlson 1976)。实证方法也被指责为过于关注“风景美”并受到如风景画等观念的过度影响(Carlson 1977)。总的来说,人们认为这个领域存在理论问题(Sparshott 1972),特别是实证研究被认为缺乏充分的概念框架,常常在一个批评家所称的“理论真空”中进行(Appleton 1975b)。填补这一真空的尝试促使了将社会生物学作为赏析自然美的基础的想法,比如“前景-避难理论”(Appleton 1975a 1982),以及其他与进化相关的解释(Orians and Heerwagen 1986 1992),这些想法最近在一些哲学家中得到了更多的关注(Davies 2012,Paden et al 2012,Paden 2015a 2016,Bartalesi and Portera 2015)。 此外,这一时期的关注促使了各种基于发展心理学和环境心理学的审美反应理论模型的发展(例如,Kaplan 和 Kaplan 1989 年,Bourassa 1991 年)。有关此类研究的综述(Zube 1984 年,Cats-Baril 和 Gibson 1986 年,Daniel 2001 年)和文集(Saarinen 等人 1984 年,Nasar 1988 年,Sheppard 和 Harshaw 2001 年),以及最近的研究,虽然它们基本上是以实证为导向,但具有相当大的理论兴趣(Porteous 1996 年,Bell 1999 年,Parsons 和 Daniel 2002 年,Gobster 等人 2007 年,Hill 和 Daniel 2008 年,Gobster 2008 年 2013 年)。一篇综合性的对这类研究的综述还包括了一些关于它与自然美学哲学工作的关系的讨论(Thompson 和 Tarvlou 2009 年)。

在哲学美学领域内,对自然美学的重新关注也受到了另一个发展的推动:罗纳德·赫本(Ronald Hepburn)发表的开创性文章《当代美学与对自然美的忽视》(Hepburn 1966)。赫本的文章被普遍认为为二十世纪后期的自然美学设定了议程(Brook 2010,Saito 2010,Sepänmaa 2010,Carlson 2014b)。赫本指出,通过将所有美学基本上归结为艺术哲学,分析美学几乎忽视了自然界。然而,他观察到,在对自然的审美欣赏中,就像对艺术的欣赏一样,存在着只是琐碎和肤浅的欣赏与认真和深入的欣赏之间的区别。他进一步提出,对于自然,这种认真的欣赏可能需要新的和不同的方法,既能适应自然的不确定和多变的特性,又能适应我们的多感官体验和多样化的理解。通过关注自然美,赫本证明了除了艺术世界之外,对世界的审美体验也可以进行重要的哲学研究。因此,他不仅引发了对自然美学的重新关注,还为自然美学以及日常生活美学奠定了基础。

在赫本的文章之后,自然美学这一新兴领域的下一个重要发展挑战了自然欣赏不是审美的观念以及以艺术为导向的自然审美的持续存在。尽管这些关于自然欣赏的观点在分析美学将审美学简化为艺术哲学的基础上找到了一些依据,但随着艺术对哲学美学的垄断地位开始削弱,人们越来越认识到这些观点是非常违反直觉的。关于前者,我们对审美体验的许多基本范例似乎都是对自然的欣赏,比如我们对日落或飞鸟的喜悦。此外,西方美学传统以及其他传统,如日本传统,长期以来一直坚持明确反对非审美的自然欣赏观念,比如坚信“任何可以被观看的东西都可以被审美地观看”(Ziff 1979)。关于以艺术为导向的模型,有人认为这些方法并没有充分实现对自然的认真、适当的欣赏,而是扭曲了自然环境的真实特性。例如,景观模型建议将环境框定并扁平化为风景。此外,这些观点在过分关注艺术品质的同时,被认为忽视了我们对自然的正常体验和理解(Hepburn 1966 1993,Carlson 1979 2000,Berleant 1985 1988 1992,Saito 1998a 1998b)。简而言之,问题在于它们没有承认以审美的方式欣赏自然的重要性,正如一位美学家所说,“作为自然”(Budd 2002)。

3. 自然美学的基本取向

在自然美学作为哲学研究的一个重要领域出现之后,一些初步的立场开始形成。在上个世纪的最后一部分,这些立场发展出了关于自然环境审美欣赏的不同取向。当时,这些立场经常被区分为两个不同的群体,分别被标记为认知和非认知(Godlovitch 1994,Eaton 1998,Carlson 和 Berleant 2004),概念和非概念(Moore 1999),或者叙事和环境(Foster 1998)。这种区分标志着那些认为知识和信息对于环境审美欣赏至关重要的观点与那些认为其他特征(如参与、情感唤起或想象力)至关重要的观点之间的分歧。这种区分因此为该领域中所代表的不同观点提供了结构和组织。此外,它与关于艺术、音乐和文学欣赏的美学理论中使用的类似区分相一致。

3.1 认知观点

所谓自然美学中的认知、概念或叙事立场,它们的共同点在于认为对所欣赏对象的性质的知识和信息对其审美欣赏至关重要。因此,它们主张自然必须按照“自身的条件”来欣赏(Saito 1998b)。这些立场往往拒绝以艺术审美经验为模型来评价环境的审美方法,比如以风景如画的理念为基础的方法。然而,它们肯定艺术欣赏仍然可以展示出对自然欣赏的充分解释所需的一些内容。例如,在对艺术作品进行认真、适当的审美欣赏时,我们认为体验作品的实际本质并结合对其真实性质的了解是至关重要的。因此,例如,对于像毕加索的《格尔尼卡》(1937)这样的作品的适当欣赏要求我们将其视为一幅画,而且是一幅立体派的画,因此我们需要根据对绘画的一般知识和立体派绘画的特殊知识来欣赏它(Walton 1970)。采用这种思路,一种认知的自然欣赏方法,有时被称为自然环境模型(Carlson 1979)或科学认知主义(Parsons 2002),认为就像对艺术的认真、适当的审美欣赏需要艺术史和艺术批评的知识一样,对自然的审美欣赏需要自然历史的知识,即自然科学,尤其是地质学、生物学和生态学等科学提供的知识。其观点是,关于自然的科学知识可以揭示自然对象和环境的实际审美特质,就像关于艺术史和艺术批评的知识可以揭示艺术作品的特质一样。 简而言之,适当地审美地欣赏自然“根据其自身的特点”是以自然科学的特征来欣赏它(Carlson 1981 2000 2007,Rolston 1995,Eaton 1998,Matthews 2002,Parsons 2002 2006b)。

其他关于环境审美的认知或准认知解释与科学认知主义不同,无论是在认为哪种认知资源与此类欣赏相关,还是在考虑这些资源的相关程度方面。一方面,几种认知方法强调不同种类的信息,声称以“自身条件”欣赏自然可能涉及以各种文化和历史传统的光线体验它。因此,在适当的审美欣赏中,当地和区域叙述、民间传说,甚至关于自然的神话故事被认可为与科学知识相辅相成或替代的内容(Sepänmaa 1993,Saito 1998b,Heyd 2001)。另一方面,至少还有一种准认知方法强烈支持自然必须被“作为自然”来欣赏的观点,但不超出这个限制。接受“作为自然”限制的理由是,对自然的审美体验应该忠实于自然的实际情况。然而,这就是该方法对认知主义的承诺的程度,并标志着它在艺术欣赏和自然欣赏之间找到的相似性的限度。它拒绝了科学对自然的认识可以揭示自然物体和环境的实际审美特质的想法,就像对艺术历史和艺术批评的知识可以揭示艺术作品一样。此外,它认为,与艺术不同,自然物体和环境的许多最重要的审美维度极大地相对于观察条件。总之,自然的审美欣赏被认为允许一定程度的自由,而这种自由在艺术的审美欣赏中是被否定的(Fisher 1998,Budd 2002)。

3.2 非认知观点

与自然美学中的认知立场形成对比的是几种所谓的非认知、非概念或环境方法。然而,“非认知”在这里不应按照其旧哲学意义理解,仅仅意味着“情感”。相反,它仅仅表示这些观点认为,除了认知成分(如科学知识或文化传统)之外,美学欣赏环境的核心特征是其他东西。主要的非认知方法被称为参与美学,它借鉴了现象学和分析美学。在这样做的过程中,它不仅拒绝了许多关于自然和艺术美学欣赏的传统观念,还认为无私的理论涉及对审美概念的错误分析,这在自然环境的审美体验中最为明显。根据参与方法,无私的欣赏,以其孤立、疏离和客观化的凝视,在自然的审美体验中是不合适的,因为它错误地将自然对象和欣赏者从它们适当所属的环境中抽象出来,并在其中实现适当的欣赏。因此,参与美学强调了自然的情境维度和我们对其的多感官体验。将环境视为地方、有机体和感知的无缝统一,它挑战了传统的二分法的重要性,比如主体和客体之间的二分法。它呼唤欣赏者沉浸于自然环境中,并尽可能地减少他们与自然世界之间的距离。简而言之,适当的审美体验被认为涉及欣赏者对欣赏对象的全面沉浸(Berleant 1985 1988 1992 2013b)。

自然美学中的其他非认知立场认为,除了参与之外,其他维度也是审美体验的核心。所谓的唤起模型认为,我们可以通过敞开心扉并对自然产生情感激动来欣赏自然。在这种观点下,对自然的这种较少智力、更多本能的体验构成了一种合法的审美欣赏方式,不需要从科学或其他地方获得任何知识(Carroll 1993)。另一种类似的观点认为,科学或任何其他形式的知识都不能促进对自然的真正、适当的欣赏,但并不是因为这种欣赏只需要情感激动,而是因为自然本身本质上是陌生的、疏离的、遥远的和不可知的。这种观点,可以称为神秘模型,认为对自然的适当体验包括一种与自然分离、不属于自然的感觉,涉及到一种欣赏性的不理解的神秘感(Godlovitch 1994)。第四种非认知方法将几个被认为与欣赏自然相关的特征结合在一起。它试图在参与和传统的客观性观念之间取得平衡,同时将想象力置于核心地位。这种方法区分了许多不同类型的想象力,包括联想、隐喻、探索、投射、扩大和启示。它还通过诸如受欣赏对象的引导、客观性的约束作用以及“良好想象”的概念等因素来回应想象力引入主观性的担忧(Brady 1998 2003)。强调想象力的形而上学维度的相关观点也可以归入非认知群体,尽管这样做需要对形而上学推测的认知内容做出某些假设。 根据这个解释,想象力将自然解释为揭示形而上学洞见的方式:关于生命的意义、人类状况或我们在宇宙中的位置等事物的洞见。因此,这个观点包括了适当的自然审美体验中那些关于终极现实的抽象沉思和思考,这些思考有时在我们与自然的相遇中产生(Hepburn 1996)。

4. 超越自然环境的自然美学

自 20 世纪末形成以来,自然美学的最初立场已从对自然环境的原始关注扩展到考虑人类和人类影响的环境。与此同时,该学科还开始研究这些环境中的事物,从而产生了所谓的日常生活美学。这个领域涉及的不仅仅是更常见的物体和环境的美学,还包括一系列日常活动的美学。关于人类环境的美学和日常生活的美学,结合认知和非认知观点的方法变得更加普遍,并且似乎特别有成果。

4.1 人类环境的美学

自然美学中的认知和非认知取向都有资源用于审美研究人类和人类影响的环境。在最初的立场中,一些非认知方法对这个研究领域做出了最重要的贡献。参与美学在这方面尤为重要,它构成了一种模式,不仅仅是对自然和艺术的审美欣赏,而且对人类体验的每个方面都进行了研究;它研究了乡村、小镇、大城市、主题公园、花园、博物馆,甚至人际关系的审美维度。此外,尽管从早期的自然美学论文集中可以明显看出(Kemal 和 Gaskell 1993,Carlson 和 Berleant 2004),该领域最初集中在自然环境上,但参与美学与大多数其他方法不同,从一开始就不仅仅关注自然环境,而且特别关注城市环境(Berleant 1978 1984 1986)。这方面的大部分材料可以在最近出版的专著中找到(Berleant 1997 2004 2005 2010b 2012)。它已经成为对城市和其他类型环境的审美欣赏的大量研究的基础(Haapala 1998,von Bonsdorff 2002,Blanc 2013,Paetzold 2013,Alvarez 2017)。其他非认知解释,例如强调想象力的解释,同样阐明了我们对各种人类环境的审美反应,以及我们对它们的使用,如资源提取和农业生产(Brady 2003 2006)。

认知解释还研究人类环境的审美欣赏,认为与自然环境一样,适当的欣赏取决于对某物是什么、它是什么样子以及为什么是这样的了解。科学认知主义声称,对于人类环境的适当欣赏,社会科学,尤其是历史所提供的知识与自然科学所提供的知识同样重要(Carlson 2009)。对于乡村和城市环境以及工业和农业等专门环境的适当欣赏,需要了解它们的历史、功能以及在我们生活中的作用(Carlson 1985 2001,Parsons 2008b,Parsons 和 Carlson 2008)。其他方法强调文化传统的审美潜力,这似乎特别与所谓的文化景观的欣赏相关,这些环境构成了特定群体的文化和历史中的重要场所。所谓的归属感,以及民间传说、神话和宗教中的思想和形象,经常在个体对自己家园景观的审美体验中起着重要作用(Saito 1985,Sepänmaa 1993,Carlson 2000,Sandrisser 2007,Firth 2008,Nomikos 2018)。

对人类环境审美欣赏的富有成效的方法也可以在既涉及认知观点又涉及非认知观点的观点中找到。已经有人试图明确建立这两种取向之间的联系(Foster 1998,Moore 1999 2008,Fudge 2001),并且有几个收藏和研究,超越了认知/非认知区分,增进了我们对各种环境的欣赏的理解,并解决了与之相关的问题(Berleant and Carlson 2007,Arntzen and Brady 2008,Herrington 2009,Brady et al 2018)。对农村景观(Sepänmaa 2005,von Bonsdorff 2005,Andrews 2007,Benson 2008,Leddy 2008,Brook 2013,Benovsky 2016)和城市城市景观(von Bonsdorff 2002,Macauley 2007,Sepänmaa 2007,Erzen and Milani 2013,Frydryczak 2015)以及更专门的环境进行了调查,例如工业场所(Saito 2004,Maskit 2007,Kover 2014),购物中心(Brottman 2007),恢复和重建的环境(Heyd 2002,Prior and Brady 2017,Brady et al 2018),甚至是自然结束后的环境(Vogel 2015)。除了考虑这些更大、更公共的环境之外,日常生活的审美尤为重要。

4.2 日常生活的审美

日常生活的审美倾向于关注较小环境的审美,以及占据这些环境的常见物品和日常活动。因此,它不仅研究更个人环境的审美特质,例如个人居住空间,如院子和房屋(Melchionne 1998 2002,Lee 2010),还研究正常日常体验的审美维度(Leddy 1995 2005b 1012b,Saito 2001 2008 2012 2017b,Haapala 2005,Irvin 2008a 2008b,Mandoki 2010,Maskit 2011)。此外,它还探索了较为专业和可能是独特的人类兴趣和活动的审美方面,例如对人体的欣赏(Davies 2014,Irvin 2016b,Saito 2016),对体育的欣赏(Welsch 2005,Edgar 2013)以及对食物、烹饪和用餐的欣赏(Korsmeyer 1999,Sweeney 2017,Ravasio 2018)。有一些重要的专著涉及日常生活审美的一般主题(Mandoki 2007,Saito 2008 2017a,Leddy 2012b),以及几个专题集(von Bonsdorff and Haapala 1999,Light and Smith 2005,Yuedi and Carter 2014a,Irvin 2016a),这些专题集追求特定的兴趣领域,从而揭示并鼓励对人类生活几乎每个方面的欣赏。然而,尽管这些不同的研究方向显然非常有成果,但日常生活审美作为对真正审美体验的研究的资格已经受到了质疑、辩论和辩护(Dowling 2010,Melchionne 2011 2013 2014,Leddy 2012a 2014 2015,Naukkarinen 2013 2017,Carlson 2014a,Davies 2015,Puolakka 2018)。

尽管存在这些挑战和对日常生活美学的担忧,但当它转向对体育和食物等事物的调查时,它开始回到原点,将自然美学与更传统的美学以及对明确真实的审美体验的研究联系起来。通过日常生活的美学,以及人类环境的美学,自然美学与体育和烹饪中涉及的艺术活动接触,还与园艺(米勒 1993,斋藤 1996,卡尔森 1997,罗斯 1998,库珀 2006,帕森斯 2008a,钟 2018,布雷迪等 2018)以及景观设计、建筑和设计(斯特克尔 1999,卡尔森 2000,帕森斯 2008b 2011 2016,福尔西,2013,斯瓦博和埃克伦德 2015,范埃特格尔等 2016)等领域进行联系。此外,在自然美学的背景下,还探索和重新探索传统艺术形式,如诗歌和文学(伯利安特 1991 2004,罗斯 1998,塞潘马 2004)以及绘画、雕塑、舞蹈和音乐(伯利安特 1991 2004,罗斯 1998,穆利斯 2014)以及环境艺术(克劳福德 1983,卡尔森 1986,罗斯 1993,布雷迪 2007,布鲁克 2007,费舍尔 2007,林托特 2007,帕森斯 2008a,西姆斯 2008b,布雷迪等 2018,南尼切利 2018)等新形式,这些形式被探索和重新探索,既作为我们日常经验中具有审美意义的维度,又关注它们在塑造我们对自然和人类环境的审美欣赏中的作用。(有关日常生活美学的更详细考虑,请参阅 SEP 关于日常生活美学的条目。)

5. 自然美学、环保主义和未来发展方向

随着自然美学范围的扩大,包括人类自然美学和生活美学,21 世纪也出现了对自然美学与环保主义关系的重新调查。这种关系越来越受到审视,导致对以往关于自然美学的工作的批评,以及对当代立场的详细评估。伴随着这些发展,还出现了几个新的兴趣和方向。

5.1 自然美学与环保主义

当代环保主义与自然美学的立场和观念之间的关系源于 18 世纪和 19 世纪发展起来的自然美学。正如已经指出的,早期的环保运动,尤其是在北美,受到了一种审美欣赏方式的推动,这种方式不仅受到了风景如画的概念的影响,还受到了像缪尔(Hargrove 1979,Callicott 1994,Wattles 2013,Brady 2018)这样的思想家的观念的影响。然而,最近自然美学与环保主义之间的关系似乎有些棘手(Carlson 2010)。一些关心自然和人类遗产环境的保护与保护的个人认为,传统的自然美学中没有他们认为在执行环保议程所需的资源(Loftis 2003)。其他人则研究了具有独特特征的环境所带来的问题,比如孤立性,因为很难从审美的角度来证明孤立的自然环境的保护是必要的,因为它们基本上对人类的审美欣赏是隐藏的(Parsons 2015)。这个问题在涉及不符合传统风景美的概念的环境,比如湿地,尤为严重(Rolston 2000,Callicott 2003)。此外,与早期批评相一致,景观评估和规划中的大部分实证工作仅关注风景如画的环境,自然美学的历史传统在很大程度上受到了质疑。自然美学中的各种主题,比如以风景如画的概念为基础的欣赏,已经以多种方式受到了批评:人类中心主义(Godlovitch 1994),过于关注风景(Saito 1998a),琐碎(Callicott 1994),主观(Thompson 1995)和/或道德上空洞(Andrews 1998)。 同样地,与参与美学对无私理论的批评一致,一些人发现从环境的角度来看,这个概念是值得质疑的(Rolston 1998)。

对于对传统自然美学以及无私和风景画观念的批评,有各种不同的回应。一些人重新评估并捍卫了风景画的观念,认为它以及 18 世纪传统的其他一些方面被一些当代美学家误解了(Brook 2008,Paden et al 2013,Paden 2013 2015a 2015b,Earle 2015)。其他人则转向研究原始 18 世纪三位一体中被长期忽视的美丽、崇高和风景画,从崇高中找到了新的资源来接近对自然世界的审美欣赏(Brady 2012 2013,Shapshay 2013,Mahoney 2016)。然而,无论对于风景画和崇高的重要性最终的裁决如何,非认知方法的资源,尤其是参与美学,被用来反驳那些认为由于风景画等观念的影响,对自然的审美体验必须是人类中心主义和景观迷恋的批评(Rolston 1998 2002)。人类中心主义的指责也被神秘主义方法明确地解决,该方法试图为对自然的审美欣赏提供“非中心”的基础(Godlovitch 1994)。关于无私的概念,一些哲学家仍然认为无私理论的某种形式是必要的,因为没有它,审美本身的概念就缺乏概念基础(Budd 2002),而其他人则声称,用无私的概念来分析审美体验有助于应对传统美学是人类中心主义和主观主义的指责,因为这样的分析支持审美判断的客观性(Brady 2003)。同样,认知解释也对其中一些指责提供了回应。 特别是科学认知主义,它专注于地质学和生态学等科学知识,据称有助于解决环境保护和保护中审美欣赏的重要性较小的担忧,因为审美欣赏是微不足道和主观的(Hettinger 2005,Parsons 2006a 2008a)。然而,科学认知主义和相关的生态依赖观点在解决关于自然环境和人类环境适当审美欣赏的问题和疑虑方面的能力也受到了各种质疑(Budd 2002,Hettinger 2007,Berleant 2010a 2016,Bannon 2011,Stecker 2012,Herguedas 2018,Mikkonen 2018)。

与更加生态学意识的审美欣赏运动一样,将自然审美与积极美学联系起来的思路也引发了争议。认为未经触动、原始的自然只具有或主要具有积极美学特质的观点与科学认知主义相关联,暗示将自然欣赏与科学知识相结合可以解释积极美学欣赏是如何由科学世界观培养出来的,科学世界观越来越将自然界解释为具有积极美学特质,如秩序、平衡、统一和和谐(卡尔森 1984)。其他哲学家则以相反的方式看待科学认知主义与积极美学之间的关系,认为后者应该被假定存在,从而为前者提供支持(帕森斯 2002),或者简单地认为积极美学传统实际上比当代科学认知主义早得多(费米斯特和斯特里克兰 2015)。尽管如何证明这一观点存在争议,但一些积极美学立场的版本得到了几位环境哲学家的支持(罗尔斯顿 1988,哈格罗夫 1989,赫廷格 2017,程 2017a),而其他人则认为它存在问题,要么因为它似乎削弱了环境规划和保护所需的比较评估的可能性(汤普森 1995,戈德洛维奇 1998a),要么因为这个想法本身似乎不直观、晦涩和/或不充分地得到了证明(戈德洛维奇 1998b,斋藤 1998a,巴德 2002,斯特克尔 2012)。即使是对积极美学的想法持有一定开放态度的哲学家也对其最初的表述有所保留,认为它过于依赖现在已过时的生态学概念和/或不足够强调将自然作为审美欣赏的基本组成部分的进化理解(西姆斯 2008a,帕登等 2012,帕登 2015a 2016)。 这些考虑可能指向一个更合理的积极审美版本。

5.2 自然美学:新兴兴趣和未来方向

尽管对各种认知主义方法存在上述保留意见,但鉴于地质学、生物学和尤其是生态学对自然美学的审美欣赏似乎具有相关性,科学认知主义有时被解释为阿尔多·利奥波德传统上的“生态美学”,他将自然之美与生态完整性和稳定性联系在一起(Callicott 1994 2003,Gobster 1995)。然而,尽管它显然源于利奥波德的思想,但“生态美学”的明确概念,或者有时被称为生态美学,似乎有着更晚的起源(Meeker 1872,Koh 1988)。此外,尽管这个想法在分析性自然美学中有一段时间的位置,最好由科学认知主义来填补,但最近它也被一些在“大陆传统”中工作的哲学家所采纳。例如,有人声称,尽管在“生态美学”方面的现象学工作“仍处于初级阶段”,但胡塞尔、海德格尔和梅洛-庞蒂的工作适用于其发展。此外,有人建议,参与的美学是第一个并且目前最强大的“综合现象学生态美学理论”,并且与科学认知主义相结合将构成一个更强大的生态美学(Toadvine 2010)。还有其他最近的自然美学研究,或多或少地借鉴了分析和大陆传统(Tafalla 2011,Leddy 2012b,Maskit 2014,Paetzold 2014,Seel 2015,Jóhannesdóttir 2016)。

此外,东方对自然美学也有相当大的兴趣,它同样借鉴了分析传统、大陆传统以及东方哲学(程 2010 年,2013b 年,2017b 年,岳迪 2014 年,陈 2015 年)。最近在这一领域的研究中,涉及了自然环境和人类环境的几个不同主题,其中包括东方学者和西方学者的研究成果(薛 2008 年,2018 年,薛和卡尔森 2010 年,斋藤 2014a 年,青田 2016 年,伯利安特 2013a 年,2016 年,卡尔森 2017 年,奥丁 2017 年,曾 Y.2017 年,布鲁贝克 2018 年,钟 2018 年,帕森斯和张 2018 年)。还有一些包含相关论文的专题集(程等 2013 年,岳迪和卡特 2014a 年,卡利科特和麦克雷 2017 年,阮 2018 年),以及一些专门致力于东方美学最新研究的期刊专辑,例如《批判理论》1, 2 (2017)和《当代美学》特刊 6 (2018)。在这些研究中,也许最主要的兴趣领域是生态美学,中国美学家们对此进行了深入研究,并提出了强有力的生态美学版本(程 2013a 年,2016 年,曾 F.2017 年)。除了这里引用的来源外,这些研究大部分只有中文版本。然而,一种著名的生态美学版本以英文形式呈现,将“生态美学欣赏的四个关键要素”定义为生态知识的核心、拒绝人类与自然界的二元对立,以及生态系统生物多样性和健康的超越价值,以及生态伦理的持续指导(程 2013c 年)。这四个“关键要素”中的前两个反映了科学认知主义和参与美学,而后两个则超越了这些西方立场。 通过将生态系统健康和生态伦理学置于生态美学的框架之中,中国生态美学直接而有力地回应了自然美学与环境伦理之间的关系问题(Carlson 2018)。这一举措与西方美学家试图将对自然和人类环境的审美欣赏与维护环境和生态健康的道德义务相一致的尝试相媲美,甚至可能更加成功(Rolston 1995,Eaton 1997 1998,Lintott 2006,Saito 2007 2008,Varandas 2015),并且在自然美的审美欣赏与自然保护和保护之间建立强有力的积极联系(Rolston 2002,Brady 2003,Carlson and Lintott 2007,Parsons 2008a,Carlson 2010,Lintott and Carlson 2014,Parsons 2018)。然而,自然和人类环境的审美欣赏与伦理考虑之间的关系程度仍然是一个需要调查、讨论和辩论的问题(Loftis 2003,Bannon 2011,Stecker 2012,Carlson 2018,Stewart and Johnson 2018)。

当前对大陆传统的自然美学研究以及东方学者在生态美学方面的广泛工作,都是自然美学全球化的例证。最近,东西方都呼吁对美学的全球化进行研究(Li and Cauvel 2006, Higgins 2017),尤其是对自然美学的全球化(Saito 2010, Yuedi and Carter 2014b)。这样的呼吁对于该领域的持续发展至关重要,然而,值得注意的是,尽管大陆传统中的生态美学研究及其在东方的发展相对较新,但自然美学本身早已具有全球化的导向。自其创立以来,广泛的学者对该领域产生了兴趣,他们探索不同的哲学传统和/或在不同国家工作。例如,借鉴大陆哲学对自然美学并不新鲜(Berleant 1985)。同样,在自然美学发展的早期,对日本自然美学进行了重要的研究(Saito 1985 1992 1996),并延续至本世纪(Saito 2002 2014a)。另一个例子是芬兰的研究成果,在 20 世纪 90 年代和 2000 年代举办了许多会议,每次会议后都有一系列的文章出版,例如(Sepänmaa and Heikkilä-Palo 2005, Sepänmaa et al 2007)。类似地,近年来中国也举办了几次会议,邀请了西方学者,并出版了一系列的文章(Cheng et al 2013, Yuedi and Carter 2014a)。类似的文章集也出版了欧洲会议(Drenthen and Keulartz 2014)和北美会议的论文,其中一些论文被收录在《审美与艺术批评杂志》的最新特刊中(Shapshay and Tenen 2018a)。 自然美学的全球吸引力的另一个指标是,许多自然美学的文章和书籍已经从英语翻译成了其他几种语言,包括几种欧洲语言以及韩语和尤其是中文,其中一些基本的西方自然美学文本已经被翻译成了中文。此外,这种全球吸引力还体现在该领域目前在多个不同国家和语言中发表的大量研究上。

自然美学的持续全球化以及当今在生态美学等各种观点中进行的富有成果的讨论,表明最有助于促进和支持对各种自然和人类环境的审美欣赏和保护的工作,并不仅仅依赖于任何一种特定的自然美学方法,而是试图将几种不同的取向和传统的资源结合起来(Nassauer 1997,Lintott 2006,Carlson 2009,Moore 2008,Cheng 等人 2013,Carlson 2018)。例如,除了中国生态美学研究外,西方学者也在认知和非认知观点上进行类似的努力(Rolston 1998 2002,Saito 2007,Toadvine 2010)。此外,许多思想家探索其他与自然美学有建设性关联的主题,例如女性主义理论(Lee 2006,Lintott 2010,Lintott 和 Irvin 2016),政治和社会问题(Berleant 2005 2012,Ross 2005,Simus 2008b,McShane 2018,Saito 2018),生物哲学(Parsons 和 Carlson 2008),动物待遇和保护(Parsons 2007,Hettinger 2010,Semczyszyn 2013,Brady 2014a,Tafalla 2017,Cross 2018),天气和气候变化(Brady 2014b,Diaconu 2015,Nomikos 2018),以及最重要的是丰富人类生活质量(Saito 2017a 2018,Jamieson 2018)。这种工作还可以将这些相关主题应用于环境政策和实践(Saito 2007,Berleant 2010b 2012,Parsons 2010,Sepänmaa 2010,Robinson 和 Elliott 2011,Cheng 等人 2013,Brady 2014b)。通过这种方式,这些贡献继续塑造自然美学的未来方向(Saito 2010 2014b,Blanc 2012,Drenthen 和 Keulartz 2014,Shapshay 和 Tenen 2018b)。 这种创新、折衷的方法,加上自然美学的全球化,希望不仅能推动各种环境目标和实践的进一步发展,还能培养对我们生活的世界的审美潜力的更深入理解和欣赏。

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