舞蹈哲学 dance, philosophy of (Aili Bresnahan)

首次发表于 2015 年 1 月 12 日,实质修订于 2019 年 11 月 19 日

“什么算作哲学”是一个长期存在的问题,不仅在美国哲学协会内外进行了讨论。跨学科的哲学是否仍然被视为“哲学”,它不仅包括来自其他领域的见解,还包括它们的方法、承诺和话语形式?本文认为是的,它认为某个领域的哲学可以借鉴与之相关的所有领域(在本例中是舞蹈),只要这样做有助于我们思考该领域的意义。“哲学”在这里被广泛解释,与舞蹈哲学这个快速发展的领域中使用该术语的方式保持一致。舞蹈哲学的潜力是巨大的,部分原因是舞蹈本身具有多面性,可以与许多哲学分支联系起来。事实上,舞蹈在历史上一直被用于艺术、教育、治疗、社交、政治、宗教和其他目的。还有一些被认为是舞蹈的边缘类型,比如数字舞蹈,或者一些具有类似体操或花样滑冰等审美运动特征的竞技舞蹈类型,所以在某些情况下,“什么算作舞蹈”也是一个问题。

当然,哲学方法(一旦被确定)只是提供了一些途径来研究舞蹈,以更好地理解它是什么以及为什么对我们重要。例如,舞蹈文化理论家、社会学家、历史学家、教育家、人类学家、民族学家、从业者、舞蹈评论家、进化生物学家、认知科学家、心理学家等提供了理论和见解,这些理论和见解与哲学家提出的问题相关,但主要依赖于从这些领域中提取的分析方法。通常被称为“舞蹈研究”的领域通常利用文化研究和历史研究,但通常还包括上述一种或多种观点,包括所有形式的哲学(特别是应用哲学和现象学)。最近,研究舞蹈的国际会议和舞蹈历史学者协会合并成立了舞蹈研究协会(有关舞蹈研究领域的更多信息,请参见 Franko 2014a)。舞蹈研究的研究期刊和书籍通常为学术哲学提供了良好的资源,但哲学学生通常忽视它们的咨询,有时是由于无知,有时是由于害怕在接受传统哲学方法培训的同时学会“非哲学”地处理舞蹈。这,以及其他一些原因,导致一些学者错误地认为舞蹈哲学领域比实际上要小。

另一个困难是,由于舞蹈研究领域的研究范围比我们在哲学部门和其研究指南的限制下工作的范围更加跨学科,有时是超学科的(例如,终身职位取决于在传统哲学期刊上发表文章),因此并不总是容易确定其中的哲学和与哲学相关的话语。事实上,舞蹈哲学家(尤其是 Sondra Horton Fraleigh 和 Maxine Sheets-Johnstone)具有丰富的哲学洞见,这些洞见常常被错误地忽视或误解,特别是在他们的写作与传统哲学不同的地方(另请参阅 Erin Manning 的过程哲学 [2013])。还有一种情况是,一些在舞蹈而不是哲学部门工作的学者,如分析舞蹈哲学家 Anna Pakes,确实遵守学术哲学的学科界限,但他们的作品发表在舞蹈研究而不是哲学书籍和期刊上,可能会被忽视。

哲学学生和对舞蹈哲学感兴趣的其他人应注意这些与研究相关的条件,并在确定如何撰写自己的作品和评估他人作品时考虑方法论和研究焦点的元哲学问题。例如,分析美学哲学家可能想知道舞蹈作为艺术的“作品”是什么,而这可能不是大陆、实用主义、过程或舞蹈研究整合哲学家关心的问题。同样,那些重点关注舞蹈对舞者和表演者的生活体验,并回答舞蹈从业者体验的真实性的舞蹈描述可能会引起表演哲学家、实用主义者和现象学哲学家的兴趣,但可能不会被那些对批判性赏析立场感兴趣的分析哲学家接受。

舞蹈哲学家的这些方法选择反映了规范和认识承诺(参见 McFee 2018 对舞蹈哲学规范性的另一种解释)。例如,社会权力、压迫和观点被沉默的问题可能是一组舞蹈哲学家感兴趣和关注的,而另一组舞蹈哲学家则认为这些问题与他们感兴趣的问题无关(比如三连转是否算作专家行为)。最后,随着美国和其他地方的哲学机构领域扩大,包括非西方和非传统的哲学来源,例如那些观点因各种原因被边缘化或排除的哲学家的观点,作为舞蹈哲学的内容也需要随之扩展。注意舞蹈哲学家所从事的领域、感兴趣的问题以及对他们来说什么是证据,可以避免误解和不恰当的批评他人的工作。这既是巴别塔的挑战,也是一个真正丰富多元的舞蹈哲学世界的机遇。(有关哲学与舞蹈的关系以及舞蹈哲学和跨学科性的问题,请参见 Boyce 2013 和即将出版的作品;Burt 2009;Carroll 2003;Challis 1999;Cohen 1962;Colebrook 2005;Conroy 2012;参见 Cull Ó Maoilearca 2018 [这篇文章关注哲学和戏剧,但与舞蹈存在有趣的类比];Cvejić 2015b;DeFrantz 2005;Redfern 1983;Foster、Rothfield 和 Dunagan 2005;Fraleigh 1999;参见 Franko 2014a [这篇文章讨论舞蹈研究和美学];Friedman with Bresnahan 即将出版;Levin 1983;T. Lewis 2007;McFee 2013a;Pakes 2019;Sheets-Johnstone 1984;Shusterman 2005;Sparshott 1982a、1982b、1983、1988、1993、1995、2004;以及 Van Camp 1996a 和 2009。)


1. 舞蹈作为艺术的分析本体论

舞蹈哲学作为哲学美学的一个子集,关注的问题是“舞蹈作为艺术的本质是什么?”在这里,一系列哲学问题集中在确定舞蹈作为艺术的艺术产品是什么——它是一个对象或结构,还是一个更为流动的过程或事件。舞蹈哲学家们在舞蹈作为艺术的哪些特征应该在本体论上占据主要地位方面存在分歧。一些承认舞蹈作品结构和可重复性的哲学家(尤其是尼尔森·古德曼(1976)和格雷厄姆·麦克菲(1992b、2011b 和 2018))将舞蹈的艺术相关方面视为其抽象结构,寻求实际或原则上的乐谱作为指导,即使他们否认(如麦克菲所做的那样)这是为了找到舞蹈的真正定义或“本质”。对于这些哲学家来说,重要的是有一个可以独立于任何特定主观体验或观点进行评估的欣赏对象,希望能够确定关于舞蹈作为艺术的某种“真实”的东西,这种东西可以接受理性评估、分析以及麦克菲所称的“重构”,这正是分析哲学擅长的领域(参见麦克菲 2018 年)。

尽管存在变化(例如,经典芭蕾舞剧《天鹅湖》),但在舞蹈历史上,有些舞蹈作品在历史上的认可程度相对稳定,麦克菲将这些作品作为支持他对舞蹈的观点的例证,即舞蹈是一种创造可在可重复的表演中实现的“可表演性”的实践。然而,也有一些舞蹈哲学家认为,舞蹈的艺术相关焦点可能不在被视为艺术对象的“舞蹈作品”的结构中。例如,马克·弗兰科指出,

当代对舞蹈的思考常常分为将舞蹈视为写作和将舞蹈视为超越所有语言,特别是书面语言的概念。(2011a: 322; 另见 Franko 2011b)

(有关将舞蹈视为文本的想法,请参见 Franko 1993。) 其他舞蹈哲学家认为舞蹈可以用词语和概念来描述,但这些词语和概念通常适用于表演的特征或舞蹈实践或事件,而不是文本或结构。非结构主义的舞蹈哲学家观察到,舞蹈通常缺乏词语或文本,并且通常在没有任何书面计划、脚本或乐谱的情况下进行开发(参见 Franko 1989 和 2011a; 另见 Franko 2017,特别是其中的 Pakes [2017b] 的论文,关于舞蹈和重建的最新选集)。他们还指出,即使有乐谱,这些乐谱并不总是被用作表演的必要配方,而可以作为完全不同的表演的灵感来源(参见 Franko 1989)。此外,标准化的符号形式是有争议的,没有一种形式被普遍接受(参见 Franko 2011a 和 Van Camp 1998)。最后,有些舞蹈哲学家认为,使舞蹈特殊并值得哲学家关注的是舞蹈的身体、触觉、动态、感受、感知和直觉方面(有时被称为其运动感或体感元素)。(有关舞蹈这些后者方面的更多信息,请参见本条目的第 2 和第 3 节。有关关注舞蹈的结构性与非结构性特征的更多信息,请参见下面的第 1.1-1.2 节。另请参见 Pakes 2006,关于舞蹈中的“心身问题”的一个解释。)

有关“什么是舞蹈”的一般问题,请参见 D. Carr 1987; Carroll 2003, Copeland and Cohen 1983; McFee 1998a 和 2013a; Pakes 2019; Sparshott 1988; 和 Van Camp 1981。有关舞蹈中的意义、表达、真实性和交流,请参见 D. Carr 1997; Best 1974; Franko 2014b; Hanna 1983 和 1979 [1987]; Martin 1933a, 1939 和 1946; 和 Van Camp 1996b。

1.1 身份和重建的问题

如上节中简要提到的,在分析美学中,舞蹈存在许多身份问题(参见 Fraleigh 2004,对于舞蹈中“身份”一词的替代用法)。其中一个问题是,舞蹈的创作时刻并不能永久地将舞蹈固定在那种形式中。舞蹈通常以首次演出的名称和日期为人所知,但随后的演出和演员可能会改变原始演出中存在的结构和其他质量特征。此外,正如前面提到的,许多舞蹈没有记谱,即使通过视频或其他方法保存,随后的演出仍然可能在重要的、甚至可能改变身份的方式下偏离这些框架。此外,即使有记谱,从记谱中演出的作品在体验上也可能无法被识别为“相同”的艺术作品。舞蹈记谱也可能作为一个起点,从而创作出一种全新的舞蹈,而不是对舞蹈编舞者或演员团队的创新和变化的限制。此外,舞蹈在实践或欣赏中的“本质”特征(如果有的话)可能与舞蹈在数值身份和历史保护目的上的“本质”特征并不相同。在这方面,舞蹈与音乐类似(有关更多信息,请参见 S. Davies 1991)。(有关这一特定辩论的更多信息,请参见 Armelagos 和 Sirridge 1978;D. Davies 2011b;Goodman 1976;McFee 2011b 和 2018。有关音乐哲学中相关讨论,请参见 S. Davies 1991;对于舞蹈作品本体论的另一种观点,请参见 Meskin 1999,认为舞蹈观众体验到三种艺术作品:1)编舞作品,2)制作作品,3)演出解释作品。)

有关“舞蹈是什么”的问题,请参见 D. Carr 1997;Cohen 1982;Conroy 2015(提供了关于舞蹈作为手势虚构的描述);McFee 1994 和 1998a;Rubidge 2000;Sparshott 1988 和 1995;Thomas 2018;以及 Van Camp 1981。

1.2 舞蹈作为短暂的艺术形式

舞蹈作为一种表演艺术的特点之一是它在任何一次演出过程中都在移动和变化,而且随着时间的推移也在变化。对于这种不稳定性的总结性说法是“舞蹈是一种短暂的艺术”,尽管对于这种说法有不同的解释(参见康罗伊 2012 年;另请参见科普兰德和科恩 1983 年以及科普兰德 1993 年)。这并不意味着舞蹈是无实质或不严肃的。相反,它意味着舞蹈演出和事件中有一些重要的东西在表演过程中消失了。正如上文第 3 节所指出的,这可能或可能不区别于戏剧或音乐,尽管舞蹈似乎在舞蹈的创作和表演中更少依赖录音和书面记谱。

舞蹈评论家马西娅·西格尔曾经著名地写道,舞蹈“存在于一个永恒的消失点”,这意味着对于西格尔来说,舞蹈存在于“在物质化的过程中消失的事件中。”(1972 年:1)。西格尔认为,舞蹈之所以逃脱了工业革命的大规模市场营销,“正是因为它不适合任何复制...”(1972 年:5)。康罗伊(2012 年:158)承认,对于西格尔的说法,“最安全”的本体论解释将表明舞蹈演出是一次性的、短暂的事件。如果是这样的话,这意味着没有持久的“类型”构成了一个舞蹈艺术作品,这个作品通过各种实例化的演出来“标记”。这意味着 D.戴维斯(2011b)讨论的“古典范式”是错误的,这一点得到了古德曼(1976 年)和麦克菲(2011b 和 2018 年)的支持。如果我们认为一些舞蹈演出是短暂的,而另一些不是,那么古典范式仍然需要解释那些不符合的演出,就像音乐的本体论不得不处理高度或完全即兴爵士乐演出的本体论一样,这些演出似乎是“一次性的”,并且没有通过录音保存。(有关此问题的更多信息,请参阅安娜·佩克斯即将出版的书《隐形编舞:舞蹈消失的作品》。)

McFee(2011b; 也参见 2018)认为,舞蹈作品的不稳定性是由于舞蹈的保存和重建不佳而导致的问题,而不是告诉我们关于舞蹈本质的有意义的特征。他还认为,舞蹈符号可能在未来得到发展,以提供一种可行的方式来保存和重建舞蹈,这是 Van Camp 和 Franko 认为可能不可能的(他们在本条目的第 2 节中的具体主张可以在上面找到)。我们可以将这视为对舞蹈短暂性的负面观点。

然而,舞蹈作为一种短暂艺术的积极版本认为,我们应该欣赏而不是诋毁舞蹈的不断变化和消失的本质,因为这使得一场不会再次以同样方式发生的舞蹈现场表演成为舞蹈演员和观众的重要体验。积极的观点赞美舞蹈表演的现场性质,并有助于解释为什么对舞蹈表演的肌肉感应反应既相关又强大。它还表明,短暂性是舞蹈的审美价值,使舞蹈能够提供一种“你必须在那里”的事件(有关即兴艺术在现场舞蹈表演中作为一种与这种积极观点一致的机构的描述,请参见 Bresnahan 2014a)。Conroy 同意 McFee 的观点,即“舞蹈是一种短暂的艺术”这一说法适用于保存舞蹈的困难,但她还认为它应该被看作是一种舞蹈世界的价值观;作为传达“对先前演出的编舞的变化持容忍态度的一种方式”(2012: 160)。

2. 舞蹈作为机构和有意识的行动

正如在本条目的介绍中提到的那样,舞蹈哲学家在舞蹈实践和表演中的关注点各不相同。许多关注舞蹈作为行动和有意识行为的哲学家关注的是舞蹈作为艺术中所涉及的专业行动,尽管有些人将行动和意图视为社交或其他形式的舞蹈。同时,当将舞蹈视为专业行动形式(类似于体育运动)时,技术和运动能力以及艺术技巧(如表现力或优雅)通常是分析的重点(参见,例如,Montero 2016)。其中包括对舞蹈作品身份问题感兴趣的艺术哲学家,目的是进行历史鉴定和重建等。这些哲学家将与舞蹈相关的行动视为创造和实现舞蹈艺术作品(舞蹈作品)所需的一部分,重点是这些行动所创造的结构。(有关 McFee 对舞蹈和行动的观点的更多信息,请参见 McFee 2011b、2018 和即将出版的著作。)

除了第 1 节中提到的方式之外,分析美学中的舞蹈哲学家还考虑了“什么是舞蹈?”这个问题的另一种传统方式,即将舞蹈描述为一种特别富有表现力的艺术形式,或者一种以特定方式涉及“行动”的艺术形式。舞蹈历史学家 Selma Jean Cohen(1962)认为,所有舞蹈都具有表现力,例如,这导致 Monroe C. Beardsley(1982)提出表现力可能是舞蹈作为艺术的必要条件,如果不是充分条件的话。Beardsley 借鉴了行动理论,他说一个身体行动可以在适当的情况下转化为另一种行动。因此,奔跑的行为在适当的情况下可以具有表现力,并成为舞蹈艺术的一部分。我们还可以推断出舞蹈作为艺术的其他条件也可能适用(在剧院的舞台上,以舞蹈的形式呈现,以舞蹈词汇的方式进行等)。在提出这一观点时,Beardsley 反对 Haig Khatchadourian(1978)的观点,后者认为舞蹈动作不是行动,并赞扬 Van Camp 的《舞蹈批评的哲学问题》(1981)帮助他以这种方式批评 Khatchadourian。(有关舞蹈作为行动序列而不仅仅是动作的更多信息,请参见 Meskin 1999;有关对 Beardsley 关于舞蹈作为表现行动的理论的批评,请参见 Carroll 和 Banes 1982。)

Susanne K. Langer(1953b)认为舞蹈是一种本质上是符号创造的艺术,但她并不称这种活动为“行动”。对于朗格来说,舞蹈的产物是符号,但这些符号是真实活动的一种凝聚和转化成虚拟(“艺术”)形式的方式。对于朗格来说,舞蹈的特殊符号或“主要幻觉”是她所称的“虚拟力量”或手势,而不是虚拟时间(音乐的符号),虚拟空间(塑造艺术的符号)或生命的幻觉(诗歌的符号,当它以行动的方式呈现时)。因此,她的观点与贝尔斯利在这里有显著的分歧。相反,它似乎更符合格雷厄姆·麦克菲(2018)的观点,他认为舞蹈是“具身化的意义”。麦克菲可能是在这里遵循亚瑟·C·丹托(1981)在《平凡的变形》中对艺术的描述,但由于丹托是朗格的学生,她可能是这个想法的最终起源。(有关麦克菲将舞蹈视为行动的观点,请参见本条目第 2 节。)

Anna Pakes 对舞蹈作为行动的看法与贝尔斯利和范坎普的观点一致,与卡恰杜里安和朗格的观点相悖。她(2013)认同行动是舞蹈的必要特征。亚伦·梅斯金(1999)和 Pakes 都认为,舞蹈在物理上和意图上的具体化使得舞蹈更适合被理解为行动结构,而不是永恒类型。正因为这个原因(以及其他原因),他们认为舞蹈不适合在柏拉图的艺术本体论下进行分析,因为在这种本体论中,艺术作品的结构是被发现而不是被创造的。桑德拉·霍顿·弗雷利(1996)在这方面可以与 Pakes 和梅斯金站在一起,因为她认为舞蹈必然是表达性和传递性的行动。

还有其他当代舞蹈哲学家,有些在分析传统内工作,有些则不是,他们将编舞、表演舞蹈或两者涉及的心智代理和行动视为舞蹈兴趣的主要领域。通常,这些与舞蹈是什么以及为什么重要的规范、认识论和本体论承诺有关(例如,大卫·戴维斯(2004)将所有艺术,包括舞蹈艺术,视为表演)。这些哲学家中的许多人(例如 Bresnahan 2014a、2017a 和 2019b;Merritt 2015;和 Montero 2016)在分析中使用传统哲学(分析哲学和现象学哲学的形式)和来自认知科学研究的见解作为辅助工具。(有关舞蹈哲学及其与认知科学的联系,请参见第 4 节。另请参见第 3.3 节,讨论舞蹈作为专业知识。)

在舞蹈哲学中,还有大量关于代理和有意行为的文献,重点关注在工作室、舞台或其他表演环境中发生的思考和具体活动,以及关于观众或欣赏者的代理和活动的文献,他们不是舞者和舞蹈创作者。(有关舞蹈代理和有意行为的更多舞蹈哲学文献,请参见 D. Carr 1987; J. Carr 2013; Bunker, Pakes and Rowell 2013; Noland 2009; 和 Sheets-Johnstone 1981, 1999, 2011, 和 2012。)

2.1 编舞、创作权和版权

Van Camp(1980)认为,至少在艺术判断和欣赏的目的上,有时舞蹈演员“创造”舞蹈,而不仅仅是表演和解释。例如,舞者在排练和表演过程中经常为舞蹈提供结构和风格元素,这些元素并未由编舞者指定或提供。如果这些贡献是重要的,那么舞者提供的可能更好地理解为“创作”,而不是“解释”,她坚持认为。

这个观点遭到了 McFee(2011b、2013c 和 2018 年)的反对,他认为舞蹈艺术作品是由编舞师创作并由舞者表演以实现编舞师的意图。Chris Challis(1999)的工作支持了这一观点。根据 McFee 的编舞师即舞蹈作品作者的观点,舞者的角色既是工具性的,也是次要的,他们的专长在于舞蹈,而不是舞蹈艺术创作。由此可见,舞者为舞蹈表演提供了原材料,但更像是熟练的技术人员或工匠,而不是创作者。这个观点因忽视了表演者在以艺术为导向的方式上制作和表演舞蹈的角色而受到了批评,Lauren Alpert 在美国美学学会会议上(2016 年)、Aili Bresnahan(2013 年以及在德克萨斯州立大学的舞蹈哲学会议上和关于舞蹈表演中的解释的著作中)以及 Pakes(2019 年)都对此提出了批评。(有关舞蹈创作决策和编舞的更多信息,请参见 Cvejić 2015a 和 2017、Foster 2011 和 Melrose 2017。有关视频编舞的文章,请参见 Salzer 和 Baer 2015。参见 S. Davies 1991,讨论“薄”艺术作品是否可以通过创造性的添加来“丰富”它。)

McFee 通过他的观点加强了这一说法,即舞蹈艺术作品的艺术创作权应该只归属于那些对这些作品负有“责任”的人(2018 年)。这几乎等同于将舞蹈创作的功劳与知识产权等同起来,但并没有完全等同,因为在这种情况下(特别是在美国),创造艺术作品的人并不一定是获得荣誉和法律版权的人。(有关舞蹈创作和版权的问题,请参见 Kraut 2010、2011 和 2016 年以及 Van Camp 1994 年。有关舞蹈、残疾和法律的书籍,请参见 Whatley et al. 2018 年。)

2.2 舞蹈即兴创作

“即兴舞蹈”通常指的是舞蹈创作者和表演者(可能是同一人,也可能不是)的有意识的行动,而不是这种行动的结果。卡特尔(Carter)(2000 年:182)确定了戏剧舞蹈中的三种即兴表演类型:1)装饰,其中固定编舞仍然存在;2)即兴表演作为自由运动,用于固定编舞;3)即兴表演为了自身而达到高水平的表演。1)的一个例子是舞蹈演员被允许放大现有的动作(例如,做三连旋转而不是双连旋转),或者是一种风格上的华丽动作,例如额外的手腕摆动或头部倾斜。2)的一个例子是没有为八小节的音乐提供编舞,舞者有自由在空白处插入任何他或她希望的动作。最后,3)将涵盖 D.戴维斯(D. Davies)(2011b)可能称之为“工作表演”的情况,即舞者在跳舞时编排了一部作品。它还包括整个表演或其中大部分从头到尾都是即兴的情况。例如,由史蒂夫·帕克斯顿(Steve Paxton)创作的“接触即兴舞蹈”也可以算作是为了自身而进行的即兴表演(参见帕克斯顿 1975 年和 1981 年)。

Danielle Goldman(2010 年)对卡特尔上述即兴表演类型 2 中所代表的“自由”概念进行了批判性分析。她建议我们审视社会和历史对“自由”可能性的限制,因为在压迫性条件下(如奴隶制),这种自由是不存在的,存在着禁止性的社会和身体障碍。因此,Goldman 提出了一种替代形式的即兴表演,这种表演是一种为各种潜在情况做好准备的严格模式...一种在现在中扎根、同时对下一刻可能的行动和限制持开放态度的不断准备。(2010 年:142)

a rigorous mode of making oneself ready for a range of potential situations…an incessant preparation, grounded in the present while open to the next moment’s possible actions and constraints. (2010: 142)

在《被惊艳:舞蹈与思维中的即兴创作》一书中,苏珊·利·福斯特(2003)分享了戈德曼的观点,即在表演中,实际舞蹈动作之前的那一刻对于舞蹈即兴创作的特殊审美体验至关重要。她说:“正是这种充满悬念的未知感赋予了现场表演其特殊的辉煌”(2003: 4)。她的文章还包含了对即兴创作所涉及的主体性的现象学描述,将即兴创作的生活体验与“中间声音”等同起来,其中舞者发现自己处于一种在思考选择和被动指导之间的流动状态。

舞蹈哲学家还确定了卡特的三种类别之外的其他形式的舞蹈即兴创作。例如,肯特·德·斯潘(2003)引起了我们对一种被舞者用来达到基于运动的身体状态的舞蹈即兴创作的注意,我们将其称为“身体即兴创作”。身体即兴创作,或者说这些即兴练习的结果,可以包含在面向观众的剧场表演中,但不一定需要。康斯坦斯·瓦利斯·希尔(2003)包括“挑战舞蹈”表演,源自非裔美国人的舞蹈“战斗”传统,其目的是赢得一个不断升级的技巧和风格竞赛。与身体即兴创作类似,挑战舞蹈即兴创作可以在音乐会背景下向观众展示,但不一定需要,它可以在社交和街头环境中进行,既可以作为娱乐,也可以作为“艺术”目的。艾丽·布雷斯纳汉(2014a)声称所有现场舞蹈表演都至少在某种程度上涉及即兴艺术,并将其视为一种具体化和扩展的主体性和扩展的思维理论,特别是安迪·克拉克在他的书《超级大脑:具体化、行动和认知扩展》(2011)中的理论。

有关舞蹈即兴创作的更多信息,请参阅阿尔布赖特和格尔(2003);克莱门特(1990);德·斯潘(1993、2014 和 2019);克洛本伯格(2010);马瑟森(2005);诺瓦克(1990 和 1988 [2010]);帕兰特(2006);帕克斯顿(1975 和 1981);扎波拉(2003);以及《舞蹈即兴创作牛津手册》(Midgelow 2019)。有关艺术中的即兴创作的更多信息,请参阅《美学与艺术批评》杂志 2000 年春季专题《艺术中的即兴创作》(Hagberg 2000);阿尔珀森(1984、1998 和 2010);布雷斯纳汉(2015);布朗(1996);哈格伯格(1998);G·刘易斯(2014);《批判性即兴创作研究牛津手册》(2 卷,刘易斯和皮库特 2016 / 皮库特和刘易斯 2016);以及索耶(2000)。参见 2010 年《美学与艺术批评》杂志的研讨会“音乐即兴创作”。

3. 舞蹈、生活体验和身体意识

在哲学领域中,特别是在大陆哲学、实用主义哲学和非西方传统中,将艺术视为活动和经验现象的领域。这些现象学的哲学将生活体验,包括身体和身体经验,视为可以为哲学主张提供合法的描述性或因果证据的事物。(例如,参见杜威 1934 年;梅洛-庞蒂 1945 年和 1964 年;以及 Berleant 1991 年;Bresnahan 2014b;Foultier 和 Roos 2013 年(其他互联网资源);Johnson 2007 年;Katan 2016 年;Lakoff 和 Johnson 1999 年;以及 Merritt 2015 年关于舞蹈的杜威和梅洛-庞蒂的研究。有关舞蹈现象学方法的更多信息,请参见 Albright 2011 年;Fraleigh 1996 年(其中还包含了关于美学中舞蹈历史的相当多的材料),2000 年和 2018 年;Franko 2011b;以及 Sheets-Johnstone 1966 年和 2015 年。参见 Ness 2011 年关于舞蹈从现象学转向福柯的描述。)

Richard Shusterman 发展了自己的现象学理论,他称之为“身体美学”,以解释与艺术的身体参与,包括舞蹈,以及对内部身体过程的一种运动感知(参见 2008 年,2009 年,2011a 年,2011b 年,2011c 年和 2012 年)。 (有关舞蹈和身体参与的更多信息,请参见 Eddy 2002 年;Fraleigh 2015 年;Weber 2019 年;以及 Williamson 等人 2014 年。另请参见 LaMothe 2009 年;Pakes 2003 年,2017a 年和 2019 年;以及 Parvainen 2002 年关于舞蹈、身体和认识论的相关领域的研究。)

3.1 实践的首要性

那些将生活经验视为合法的描述性和解释性证据的哲学家(其中一些已在上文提及),坚定地支持实践在舞蹈哲学中的有效性。然而,分析美学的哲学家(如 D. Davies 和 Montero)常常发现有必要以明确的方式合法化他们对实践的诉诸。D. Davies 认为,艺术的本体论应该在“实用约束”下运作,将他们的观点与实践中可以证明的内容联系起来(2009 年)。Montero 认为,有经验证据支持从业者在其实践领域中是专家的观点(参见 2012 年、2013 年和 2016 年)。

Julie Van Camp 和 Renee Conroy 认为,分析舞蹈美学需要更多地反映和回应实际的舞蹈世界和艺术世界的实践。Van Camp 提出了

艺术作品的身份 [包括舞蹈] 应该被理解为艺术界各个社群的交流和行动方式。(2006: 42)

Conroy (2013b)提出了三个“最低要求”,以便充分描述舞蹈作品身份,其中两个要求理论能够响应和适用于舞蹈实践,另一个要求满足形而上学的充分性标准。(有关舞蹈研究实践的描述,请参见 Pakes 2003 和 2017a。)

3.2 身体(肌肉)反应

在舞蹈哲学中,关于观众在观看舞蹈表演时可能产生的感受和身体反应的解释存在争议。这些感受和身体反应通常被称为“肌体感觉”,也可以拼写为“运动感觉”(将“动力学”与审美的物理感觉,如美丽、优雅等结合起来),而这些反应发生的机制是争论的焦点之一。在这里出现的两个问题是:1)肌体感觉是如何产生的?2)在多大程度上,了解这种因果过程是否有助于正确理解舞蹈作为艺术的本质?

首先来看第一个问题:目前对能够解释舞蹈中肌体感觉的因果过程并没有很好的理解。例如,我们并不清楚“共情”在广义上理解为基于我们感知到的他人经历(如舞蹈演员的经历)而产生的能力,如何影响我们的肌体感觉和其他欣赏性反应。(有关共情和表演中肌体感觉的更多信息,请参见 Foster 2008 和 2011。)

一些当代舞蹈哲学家,如芭芭拉·蒙特罗(Barbara Montero)(2006a、2006b、2012 和 2013),利用认知科学和神经科学的研究来确定观众报告的肌体感觉,如心率加快、某些紧张感以及肌肉和神经系统中更神秘的感觉的原因。(有关舞蹈哲学如何在这些和其他领域中融入认知科学方法的更多信息,请参见第 4 节。有关舞蹈肌体感觉的更多信息,请参见 Bresnahan 2017b;Reason 和 Reynolds 2010;Sklar 2008;以及 Smyth 1984。)

3.3 专业知识

Montero(2012)认为,受过训练的舞者比没有接受舞蹈训练的人具有更加丰富和细腻的肌体感知反应,她认为这可以为对舞蹈的更丰富欣赏评价做出贡献(有关这一观点的更详细讨论,请参见 Bresnahan 2017b)。Conroy 同意 Montero 的证据表明,受过训练的舞者可能能够“识别经典动作类型的多次表演之间的细微差异”,但他否认这必然转化为更好地欣赏舞蹈作为艺术,因为重要的是欣赏可能与 Montero 的证据在每种情况下所确定的感知类型无关的审美特性(2013: 205)。正如第 3.2 节中提到的,McFee 不同意舞蹈训练与理解舞蹈作为艺术的相关性,他似乎将其等同于批判性欣赏。Van Camp(2019)支持这一观点。

Bresnahan 在这一点上支持了 Montero(2017b)的观点。这是因为 Bresnahan 持有实用主义的观点,即“艺术”的决定性特征在于作为欣赏者和舞者的艺术体验。此外,Bresnahan 认为,舞蹈体验中有一些方面对于非舞蹈训练的欣赏者来说是不可获得的,或者不以同样的程度可获得。Bresnahan 同意这是一个经验性问题,但她支持 Montero、Carroll 和 Seeley 的观点,即对经验性问题的回答可以帮助哲学理解。(有关舞蹈中经验性支持哲学探究的适当性的更多讨论,请参见本条目的第 3.2 节和第 4 节。有关舞蹈和专业知识的更多信息,请参见 He 和 Ravn 2018;Melrose 2017;Montero 2010、2012 和 2013;Vass-Rhee 2018;以及 Washburn 等人 2014 年的研究。)

4. 舞蹈与认知科学

对于那些对使用认知科学的实证研究来帮助我们理解舞蹈艺术中认知-身体组成部分的舞蹈哲学家来说,他们的数量庞大且不断增长。其中包括 Bläsing 等人的 2012 年和 2019 年的研究;Bresnahan 2014a;Cross 和 Ticini 2012;Hagendoorn 2012;Katan 2016;Jang 和 Pollick 2011;He 和 Ravn 2018;Jola,Ehrenberg 和 Reynolds 2012;Legrand 和 Ravn 2009;McKechnie 和 Stevens 2009;Merritt 2015;Montero 2006a,2006b,2010,2012 和 2013;Seeley 2011 和 2013;Vass-Rhee 2018。Maxine Sheets-Johnstone 的舞蹈哲学作品涵盖了来自认知科学和其他科学的研究,其规模之大需要单独列出(请参阅本条目参考文献中的相关内容)。请参阅 Bresnahan 2017a,了解舞蹈训练如何影响我们的时间体验,以及 Bresnahan 2019a,了解专业舞蹈动作在完全认知之前通常是通过潜意识过程来体验和感知的观点。有关使用认知科学的见解对哲学的成果性的一系列持续争论,请参阅 McFee 2003、2011a 和 2018。

Montero 曾经探讨过如何将本体感(一个人了解自己在空间中的身体位置的能力)理解为一种审美感,镜像神经元如何成为观众体验这种感觉的一部分,以及训练有素的舞者可能因为这些机制而成为更好的审美评判者(至少在某种程度上)。(请参阅第 3.3 节中在此讨论之前关于专业知识的讨论。)Carroll 是一个哲学家,他在思考舞蹈和音乐如何共同影响我们的肌肉感应反应时,关注了 Montero 的研究(请参阅 Carroll 和 Moore 2011)。他还考虑了(请参阅 Carroll 和 Seeley 2013)Montero 的研究和神经科学中的其他研究如何支持舞蹈评论家 John Martin 关于从舞蹈演员到观众舞蹈的“元动力转移”理论。(有关 Martin 关于“元动力转移”理论的更多信息,他称之为“肌肉同情”和“内部模仿”,请参阅 Martin 1939 和 Franko 1996。)

支持将对舞蹈运动神经处理的研究应用于舞蹈的哲学家们普遍认为,这对于我们正确理解舞蹈作为艺术形式是相关的。例如,Carroll 和 Seeley(2013)认为,理解舞蹈的一个核心特征是理解舞蹈体验的本质,包括认知和肌肉感受等各个方面。因此,将这种体验与因果解释联系起来是阐明和全面理解这种体验的适当方式。这可以称为“中度乐观的观点”,参考 D. Davies 2013。D. Davies 对于科学研究如何在理解和欣赏舞蹈中的应用提出了他所称的“中度悲观”的观点(2013)。他同意 McFee 的观点,即有些与哲学舞蹈美学相关的问题无论科学研究有多准确,都无法回答。例如,科学无法回答“什么才算是对一件艺术作品的适当欣赏?”这样的规范性问题。根据 D. Davies 的说法,舞蹈和其他哲学家使用经验研究时必须谨慎应用于相关问题(参见 2011a 和 2013;另见 2014)。

然而,D. Davies(2013)对于经验研究只持有中度悲观的态度,因为他认为哲学不应将自己与科学和其他可能影响我们思考的学科隔离开来。在这里,他建议我们应该遵循奎因的观点,即哲学应该对当前科学做出回应,并至少了解我们的哲学观点如何与我们对世界的其他信念相吻合。D. Davies(2013)也赞同 Seeley 观点(见 Seeley 2011)的一部分,即经验研究至少可以帮助我们避免基于经验误解而产生的关于艺术的错误假设。(关于经验研究如何影响我们对艺术理解的各种乐观和悲观观点的详细讨论,请参见 Bullot 等人的 2017 年论文。)

McFee(2011a,2013b 和 2018)否认关于肌肉感应反应的因果解释与舞蹈欣赏有任何关联。这种观点可以称为(根据 D. Davies 2013 的说法)“极度悲观的观点”。McFee 认为,特别是来自科学领域的关于舞蹈欣赏和体验的因果解释,无论是关于肌肉感应反应还是其他任何事情,都与理解舞蹈作为艺术形式无关。他说,“我们的身体反应——脚趾轻拍、挺直身体、屏住呼吸、腿部紧绷等等”与舞蹈欣赏“毫无意义”(2013b: 189,这种观点在 2018 年得到了加强)。他在这里的思想是,舞蹈欣赏发生在欣赏者的层面上,即具有理解舞蹈作为艺术形式的文化资源的人,而不是在神经生物学的层面上。蒙特罗、卡罗尔和西利可能会同意,单纯的肌肉感应反应不能单独提供对舞蹈作为艺术的欣赏。不同之处在于,与 McFee 不同,他们认为神经生物学研究在某些方面可以促进我们对舞蹈作为艺术的理解。(有关 McFee 在这里的观点的更多信息,请参见 McFee 2003、2013b 和 2018。有关舞蹈观众参与的另一种神经科学方法,请参见 Seeley 2013。)

5. 其他舞蹈与哲学的联系

这一部分是最后一部分,由于介绍中提到的原因,内容较少。鼓励读者寻找除这里提到的少数资源之外的其他来源,并在每个部分推荐的附属位置进行搜索,以获取更多信息,同时在舞蹈和表演研究期刊中进行搜索。(请参阅下面的相关条目中的条目。)

5.1 非西方和非传统哲学与舞蹈

在这里,鼓励读者查阅可能不被称为“哲学”的其他来源,比如宗教研究、民族学、文化人类学、口述历史等,特别是在那些哲学和宗教学相结合的传统中(如伊斯兰哲学和某些形式的东亚和印度哲学),或者在思想传统是口头传播而非书面传播的情况下(这在原住民和土著人民的哲学中经常发生)。在文学、诗歌和歌曲中,也可以找到许多与舞蹈有关的哲学兴趣,这些作品来自那些不是西方哲学经典传统的正式成员的群体和民族。

这里提供的关于非西方和非传统哲学和/或非西方舞蹈形式的文献来源包括 S. Davies(2006 年、2008 年、2012 年和 2017 年)关于巴厘岛 Legong 舞蹈,Fraleigh(2010 年和 2015 年)关于日本舞蹈形式 Butoh,包括询问 Butoh 是否是一种哲学,Friedman 即将发表的关于后殖民主义非洲哲学框架在舞蹈中的应用的论文,Hall(2012 年)关于范农对舞蹈的看法,Osumare(2007 年)关于非洲美学和嘻哈音乐,Schroeder(2009 年)关于尼采和京都学派,Welch(2019 年)关于美洲原住民舞蹈和表演知识的现象学,以及 Welsh-Asante(1990 年)发表了一篇关于卡布拉尔、范农和非洲舞蹈的文章。另请参阅下面的第 5.2 节,特别是关于西方非传统哲学的部分,其中一些是被归类为社会政治类别的批判性工作。

5.2 舞蹈、伦理学和社会政治哲学

在这里,鼓励读者查阅伦理学、社会和政治哲学期刊,以及强调文化和批判研究(如性别、种族、残疾、种族、LGBTQ+等)的期刊,以及舞蹈研究和舞蹈历史期刊和书籍。有关讨论后结构主义和政治对舞蹈哲学影响的主题相关条目,请参阅 Pakes 2019。(参见 Cull Ó Maoilearca 2012,了解适用于舞蹈的表演伦理学的德勒兹主义观点。)

在这里,您可能还可以参考 Fiona Bannon 的书(2018 年)和舞蹈与伦理学,其中包括使用斯宾诺莎和马丁·布伯的伦理学理论,Karen Bond 的全面多方面的书籍《舞蹈与生活质量》(其中包括舞蹈对人类有益的方面,这也是为什么将此作品列入伦理学类别的原因),Bresnahan 和 Deckard 2019 年以及 Hall 2018 年关于残疾和舞蹈的书籍,DeFrantz 关于黑人舞蹈和美学的作品(即将出版和其他地方),Eva Kit Wah Man 关于中国身体、美学和政治的新书(2019 年)(不专门讨论舞蹈),Royona Mitra 关于阿克拉姆·汗舞蹈风格和编舞作为跨文化主义形式的作品(2015 年和 2018 年),Eric Mullis 即将发表的关于舞蹈和政治权力的文章,Halifu Osumare 的强大回忆录《黑暗中的舞蹈》(2018 年),以及 Sherman 2018 年关于舞者、士兵和情感参与的作品。另请参阅 Bresnahan、Katan-Schmid 和 Houston(2020 年)关于舞蹈作为具体伦理学的三部分文章。

5.3 舞蹈、电影和数字技术

舞蹈正在以不仅仅是舞台上的现场身体表演的方式发展,还包括数字、电影和其他技术或技术增强形式的舞蹈。相应地,新的舞蹈哲学(作为这些新舞蹈艺术的哲学)正在出现。除了下面提到的来源的简短列表之外,读者还被鼓励在电影和新兴技术期刊中进行舞蹈哲学研究。

写有关电影中的舞蹈(或关于电影或电影舞蹈)的舞蹈哲学家包括 Brannigan 2014;Carroll 2001;McFee 2018;以及 Salzer 和 Baer 2015。Hetty Blades(2015a 和 2015b)写过关于舞蹈、虚拟技术和配乐的文章,她的工作还涉及其他形式的舞蹈技术。关于舞蹈、伦理和技术的文章,请参阅 Mullis 2015。此外,还请参阅即将出版的由 Rebecca Farinas 和 Julie Van Camp 编辑,Craig Hanks 和 Aili Bresnahan 协助的《Bloomsbury 舞蹈与哲学手册》中关于舞蹈、电影和技术的部分,其中包括许多条目。

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Other Internet Resources

Beardsley, Monroe C.: aesthetics | Dewey, John: aesthetics | film, philosophy of | Goodman, Nelson: aesthetics | Merleau-Ponty, Maurice | music, philosophy of | theater, philosophy of

Acknowledgments

In the original version of this entry, an attempt was made to canvass some of the history of the philosophy of dance as it existed and had developed in western philosophical aesthetics. In that domain dance is treated as a meaning-making and often communicative, expressive or representational theater or concert art that is practiced and performed for audience appreciation. The present version of the entry engages with constructive feedback and attempts to map out a broader terrain for a larger and more inclusive philosophy of dance. But it is still incomplete. This reflects, in part, limitations of space as well as the fact that the much of dance philosophy exists in locations disparate enough that often they are not (yet) in communication with one another. (See Pakes 2019 for an excellent overview of the field of philosophy of dance—it is my recommendation that this work be treated as a companion piece to this entry.)

To make room for this expanded account of the philosophy of dance, earlier sections of this entry on the history of dance in Western analytic aesthetics, comparisons with music and theater, on the concepts of representation and expression, and on dance criticism have been supplanted by new sections. Those readers who wish to review the philosophical aesthetics history will find it in the original version of this entry. See also the references to Plato, Nietzsche, Scott 2018, and Sparshott 1998 for additional historical sources.

Copyright © 2019 by Aili Bresnahan

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